- HTML Translated Version -
Scientific Knowledge in the Postpositive Investigation
in the 21st Century: From the External to the Inside of the Being
Author: Erivan José Rondón
Valero
Universidad Fermín
Toro, UFT
Mérida, Venezuela
Abstract
In this new 21st century, post-positivist studies are being carried out
with the purpose of approaching the compression and analysis of the dynamic
behavior of the individual within organizations, through the application of
humanistic and holistic methods, in which the internal intervening processes
such as external, they are seen as a whole, also with the aim of obtaining the
maximum levels of compression of man within society. In this analytical
compendium, as well as documentary, a reflection on the essence of being is
presented, so it should not remain fixed as a being without emotions, feelings,
needs, on the contrary, it is important to take into account its qualitative
elements, which they can not be measured or quantified from the positivist
paradigm. The behavior of the human being as protagonist of all the processes
of life are framed in the activities, tasks, actions executed in the society;
as a result of human, professional, business and family relationships; Therefore,
at present, it represents an approach to the change of the research paradigm in
the area of scientific knowledge, in which the new dynamics of globalization
have originated new fields of research in the social sciences. Finally, the
reflections that are provided.
Keywords: science; knowledge; research.
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Date Received: 31-10-2017 |
Date Acceptance: 20-12-2017 |
Conocimiento
Científico en la Investigación Postpositivista del Siglo XXI: De lo Externo a
lo Interno del Ser
Resumen
En este nuevo siglo XXI,
se están efectuando estudios postpositivistas con la finalidad de acercarse a
la compresión y análisis del comportamiento dinámico del individuo dentro de
las organizaciones, a través de la aplicación de métodos humanistas como
holísticos, en el que los procesos intervinientes internos como externos, son
vistos como un todo, asimismo con el objetivo de obtener los máximos niveles
compresivos del hombre dentro de la sociedad. En este compendio analítico, así
como documental, se presenta una reflexión sobre la esencia del ser, por lo que no debe seguir siendo fijado como un ser
sin emociones, sentimientos, necesidades, al contrario, es importante tomar en
cuenta sus elementos cualitativos, que no se pueden medir ni cuantificar desde
el paradigma positivista. El comportamiento del ser humano como protagonista de todos
los procesos de la vida se encuentran enmarcados en las actividades, tareas,
acciones ejecutadas en la sociedad; como resultado de las relaciones humanas,
profesionales, empresariales y familiares; por ello en la actualidad,
representa una aproximación al cambio de paradigma investigativo del área del
conocimiento científico, en el que la nueva dinámica de la globalización ha
originado nuevos campos de investigación en las ciencias sociales. Finalmente,
las reflexiones que se aportan.
Palabras clave: ciencia; conocimiento; investigación.
|
Fecha de Recepción: 31-10-2017 |
Fecha de Aceptación: 20-12-2017 |
1. Introduction
In this new 21st century, a greater number of
qualitative studies have been undertaken in order to approach the understanding
of the dynamic behavior of the individual within organizations, through the
application of humanistic and holistic methods in which the internal
intervening processes such as external are seen as a whole; looking for the
maximum production levels. It is important to emphasize that the main asset of
any type of organization is represented by its personnel and they will be their
innovative entities responsible for creating competitive advantages.
According to Kolakowski (1988): interprets that the world
we know is a set of observable individual facts. Our knowledge tends to order
these facts in a true knowledge, that is, something that can be used in a
practical way and that allows us to foresee certain events based on other
events. In this context, for humanity, science is the only means and way to
solve all the individual and social problems that overwhelm men. However, the
success of science consists of its ability to quantify, explain the facts and
phenomena.
In this same order of ideas, it is important to mention that the
quantifiable aspects of the context are not all reality, therefore, man
observes and experiences facts of the situation, which lead to the production
of new ideas, directing it to scientific research Therefore, a widely shared
opinion of science is that it uses the scientific method as a positive tool to
take it towards the development of scientific knowledge.
That is why, during the history of humanity,
it has been considered that science constitutes a representative part of
reality. In its most general meaning, it is equivalent to all kinds of
knowledge. Therefore, science for Busot (1988): defines it as "an
organized body of knowledge that is continually revised and renewed to explain
the dynamics of the events or objects it deals with, using a finely crafted
methodology that responds to the demands of a rigorous and rigorous
investigative process "(page 7). In the same way, according to the
aforementioned author, science is defined as the research process used to
explain the facts of reality in an organized, rational, precise and verifiable
manner. It is important to note that science is the product of the academic,
organizational and significant practice of human activity.
2. The problem
The world of social sciences in the 21st
century is related to the concept of worldview. Therefore, for the philosopher
Hume considered in the field of research, one of the most representative thinkers
of the empiricist tradition, points out that, the sciences bear some relation
to human nature, being this, the fundamental of knowledge, in the one that the
man is the one that judges about the truth or falsehood, like center of the
wisdom and object of the knowledge; raises at the same time, that it is
essential to develop a science of man, which must be done by applying empirical
research, as the only solid foundation that is achieved in knowledge, which
must be rooted in experience and observation.
Consequently, the emergence of a new type of thinking is the
orientation towards a New Scientific Paradigm, called postpositivist scientific
paradigm (postmodernity), representing a fundamental role where Martínez
(2006a): suggests that "The systemic paradigm is born and develops because
of the limitations of the analytical procedures of traditional science"
(p.76).
According to the above, the ability to explain reality and the
generation of knowledge is based on the approaches of the traditional
scientific paradigm (positivism) versus new paradigms (postpositivist) and
their implications for the development of research; therefore, it is proposed
to carry out an analysis of the mentioned paradigms, seeking to reveal, as is
the creation of knowledge from a new research criterion.
The proposal includes the reality of the
human being from the qualitative structures; For this reason, the present study
is limited to post-positivist research methods used by university professors
and researchers of the State of Mérida, in which, consequently, it is induced
to reflect on the following question:
How do university professors and researchers from the
State of Mérida analyze their post-positivist research methods in their
processes of creating new knowledge?
2.1. Purpose of the Investigation
Analyze theoretical and practical elements
of post-positivist research, used by professors and researchers from Merida
state in their processes of creation of new knowledge.
3. Theoretical references
3.1. Approaches of the traditional
scientific paradigm (positivism)
In this context, the practical orientation
is initially based on the positivist Hume, it was quickly adopted by Comte as
its main representative, designating precisely the scientific stage of human
knowledge. There are other major empiricists such as Kant, Locke, Mill and
Mach, among others, which establish a principle of verification, in other
words, everything must be verifiable on the basis of the empirical, being valid
for all sciences whether natural or human.
Therefore, positivism seeks only facts and
their laws, not causes or principles of the essences or substances, sticks to
the positive, what is set or given, renounces what is vain, tries to know and
seek only laws of the phenomena, likewise explaining all the facts through the
material clarification of the causes; From the start, it had political,
religious, moral implications, as well as those that were strictly logical and
scientific. It spread and was adopted in Europe, America as in much of the
world.
For the purposes of the study of the positivist current, it is
based on the intellectual philosopher, mathematician Comte and Hume; On the
other hand with regard to the thought of Comte (1980): establishes three stages
of knowledge as "the law of the three states" theological,
metaphysical and scientific state, according to him, knowledge goes through
three different theoretical states, both in the individual as in the human
race, this law is the foundation of the positivist philosophy and in turn a
theory of knowledge as well as a philosophy of history.
Likewise, Comte establishes that the society of the future and
the rational man must be based on science, on the one hand, the principles of
his organization will be scientifically elaborated and on the other, it is
important to know the scientific way of thinking, which can only be explained
in the very history of science, this is important for Comte, because, in some
way he wants to make his principles prevail from historical observations that
will constitute the way in which the progressive transformation of human
knowledge has taken place, which have a historical character par excellence,
being able to indicate its historical reason.
Consequently, the practical inspirations of
the facts, have as main characteristic, the mentality with positivist
orientation, that is to say, the studied reality concerning the human mind does
not lend itself only to the fantasy or supposition of the facts, but to expose
oneself to the risk of practice, such would be the case of the use of
mathematical sciences as a resource or tool that were the first to take the
path of the positive phase of development, which includes in its most complex and
general content, the measurable (accounting) relationships between the
phenomena in which quantity is interested, seeking knowledge of the laws of
nature for its domain, therefore, it is the universal and simplest property for
all things.
3.2. Brief historical review of the positivists
3.2.1. David Hume (founder
1711-1776)
Philosopher born in Edinburgh (Scotland),
his works stand out particularly in the field of knowledge. He is considered
one of the most representative thinkers of the empiricist tradition. According
to several authors, he is considered the father of positivist philosophy, such
as Leszek Kolakowski in his book entitled "Positivist Philosophy"
which points out that David Hume was one of the most acute minds that modern
times has produced and, at the same time, the true father of positivist
philosophy.
From the above, Hume tried to base the whole weight of
philosophy on human knowledge, according to him it is so difficult to
understand the essence of the spirit of man as the essence of natural or
physical events. Due to this, he decided to apply to his investigation of the
human to the empirical methods of observation (within this field there is the
possibility of making judgments, of course without losing its empirical character,
that is, the mathematical which would bring more about of the reality of the
contents) and the behavior of the human species, treasuring for their benefit
associations, as well as relationships verified by experience.
His philosophy investigates man in himself as
an element within the whole of the whole, always understanding it as an
isolated presence. With base to Hume, it indicates that the sciences keep some
relation with the human nature, being this the fundamental science in which the
man is the one that judges about the truth or falsity, being the center of the
sciences and object of the knowledge.
3.2.2. Auguste Comte (main
representative 1798-1857)
Born in Montpellier (France), is the main representative
of positivism of the nineteenth century, was the founder of sociology or
positive science of society, which he said should study social relations, as
well as human behavior as a result of collective life. Sociology was for Comte
a physics of manners that would discover the laws of human associations and
allow regulating the ethical and political destiny.
Comte's work is considered as the classic expression of the
positivist attitude, that is, the attitude of those who affirm that only the
empirical sciences are the adequate sources of knowledge, for him science is
reformed from the perception where it is a sociological fact and it is
necessary to describe its past stages, the fact of history and how to reflect
on its future possibilities, in that this is the instrument that serves to
exercise human faculties, its purpose being to dominate the conditions
established in natural and social life of man, it is apparently a reflection on
science.
However, the fact of science proposes positivist philosophy as
the only solid foundation of human life, considered as an absolute guarantee of
the destiny, future and progress of humanity, in the case of positivism, it
would be science that would be elevated to the category of infinity. In short,
the reform of humanity, assumed that mankind crosses in its history, by three
stages or stages. Comte proposes three states or stages of human knowledge:
State or Theological or Religious Stage, State or Metaphysical or Philosophical
Stage and State or Scientific or Positive Stage.
3.3. New paradigm (postpositivist
scientific paradigm)
The post-positivist scientific paradigm
began to be produced towards the end of the 19th century and reached its full
development in the decade of the fifties and sixties of the twentieth century;
Contributing to its progress fundamentally Wittgenstein, Toulmin, Hanson, Kuhn,
Feyerabend, Lakatos, Polanyi and Popper. It is through this new paradigm, that
the total change of the way of thinking and conceptualizing reality is applied,
which is acquiring significant importance in the field of social sciences,
specifically in the whole field of social research, so that a basic means of
ideas is constituted, about the nature of reality and our knowledge about it,
which forms a different vision of the environment that surrounds us, this means
that postpositivism constitutes a totally new paradigm, not supported by the
positivist paradigm or old paradigm, which demands data and theories seen in a
new way, which acquire a different meaning from reality.
In this sense, postpositivism is based on the
"subjective" concept, which means the influence that our perceptions
and personal attitudes have, in front of theoretical positions, postulates, and
the generally accepted tradition, thus replacing the concept of objectivity
present in the positivism, affirming that positivism focuses on the causal
interpretation of human behavior, in terms of mathematical or statistical
variables, for Martínez (1998):
Science
does not harbor any absolute or any final truth. It has its beginnings in
commitments with postulates and budgets, which will be modified to the extent
that new facts contradict the consequences derived from them. Science will have
eternal problems, but it will not be able to give eternal answers (p.27).
In fact, within the post-positivist scientific
paradigm, methods or styles of research (structures) established in the
creation of knowledge are presented, such as: Hermeneutical Method;
Phenomenological Method; Ethnographic method; Naturalist Method; Method of
endogenous studies; Research-action method; Biographical or life history
method; in that sense, they are analyzed descriptively.
3.3.1. Hermeneutic
Method: Dilthey (cited in Martínez, 2006b):
Process
by which we know the psychic life with the help of sensitive signs that are its
manifestation. In other words, hermeneutics would have as its mission to
discover the meanings of things, to interpret words, writings, texts and
gestures as well as any act or work, while retaining their uniqueness in the
context of which they are a part (p.119).
According to what was presented by the
author, it is the method where his main objective is the interpretation and
understanding of the facts and of the reality at a certain moment. Therefore,
compression does not occur by itself, but distortion. Hermeneutics would be the
procedure of understanding. Consequently, this method starts from the fact that
the human being is by nature interpretive, there is no scientific method, there
can not be a single interpretation, other interpretations will always
pre-exist.
3.3.2. Phenomenological
Method: It deals with how man perceives the world internally,
understands, understands, experiences and lives the phenomena of reality. In
addition, it studies concrete cases as a basis for the discovery of what is
essential, generalized and always begins with the concrete experience, taking
into account its referential framework. It is evident that it is a descriptive,
reflexive method, of demanding scientific rigor, that studies facts, as well as
difficult situations to observe and communicate.
3.3.3. Ethnographic
Method: Based on Martínez (2006c):
Ethnographic
research, in the strict sense, has consisted in the production of
analytical-descriptive studies of the customs, beliefs, social and religious
practices, knowledge and behavior of a particular culture, generally of
primitive peoples or tribes. Cultural and social anthropology has a fundamental
branch in ethnography, since its theoretical positions depend, in the last
analysis, on the integrity, sensitivity and precision of ethnographic
relationships (p.199).
From the above, the ethnographic method
refers to the description and understanding of a unit of any human group or
group of people about their lifestyle, customs, cultures and similar
characteristics, living together. However, according to Cerda (1991), states:
"Ethnography is the principle, a method that seeks the most complete collection,
as well as possible, of the necessary information to reconstruct the culture
and know the social phenomena of communities and specific groups" (p12).
That is, this type of research is holistic, naturalistic, phenomenological,
makes use of observation and is not present in value judgments.
3.3.4. Naturalist
Method: It is a combination between the phenomenological
method and the ethnographic method. Does not present hypothesis or initial
problem explicitly.
3.3.5. Endogenous
research method: For Martínez (2006d):
Endogenous
research (research generated from within), is an ethnographic research in which
researchers belong to the group under investigation. They are assisted and
advised, not guided by an expert outside the group, but it is they who choose the
objective and focus of interest, choose the methodological procedures, design
the research and place it within its frame of reference (p.211).
In this way, it is a type of research, applied in
human groups that share a similar structure of life together, which would be
the unit of analysis for the researcher or the researchers previously selected
and belonging to said group, with the objective of studying your own problems.
3.3.6. Action
Research Method: This is a research, in which the researcher is a
participant part of the problem, in other words, the researcher is directly
involved, through observation and direct participation. One of its main
objectives is to know the way in which people interpret social structures to
develop common activities, through their organizations. At present it is a type
of method used in Venezuelan communities, by means of its different
organizational forms, so that it directly benefits the community, because
everyone is involved; It is a permanent process of feedback and changes.
3.3.7. Theoretical
research: Theoretical research is difficult to achieve because
it involves the creation of new theories that have somehow been maintained and
studied over time, so, the closest that can be reached, is to the approximation
of the same.
3.3.8. Biographical
or life history method: Define Martínez (2006e):
The
subject is what is to be known, because he is the only man that exists in
concrete reality, and it is in his history that he can be captured with all his
dynamics. In addition, the subject carries within himself all the social
reality lived. In it, each social group to which it has belonged and all the
culture in which its existence has elapsed is specified. By knowing the
subject, the group and the culture are known as they occur in a subjective and
lived way (p.260).
It is a method used to illustrate the
significant life of a character relevant to the researcher. It also rejects
hegemonic paradigms, claims daily life as a response to official history and
the criterion of certainty lies in the subject or the subjects investigated..
4.
Philosophical and Epistemological Referent
It is important to point out in this
changing era in terms of research, that the theory of human relations is
essential for the development of human behavior, according to Rodríguez (2015),
states that Elton Mayo (1880-1949), together with Kart Lewin (1890-1947) and
others; they justified the need felt at the time, to humanize the productive
activity of man, with the aim of achieving and placing within the reach of the
whole society, the achievements obtained in research. In this sense, it is
based that scientists in the XXI century, must strengthen human relationships,
because qualitative results will achieve the true needs of man within society,
thus providing to meet their individual needs as collective.
Man is
experiencing continuous changes in the society to which he belongs and is a
part, therefore, the understanding of all these new phenomena that throughout the
history of humanity have impacted their growth and development, is fundamental
to approaching the interpretation and analysis of why all these changes
represent factors that are marking the development of man in the 21st century.
Researchers are obliged every day to approach the true origin for good or evil
of contemporary phenomena and look for possible solutions.
5.
Methodological framework
According to the study, an attempt is made
to provide a random solution for researchers when conducting academic research
in their training institutions, and the design of inquiry used in this article
is also exposed; the participants, the scenario and the unit of analysis. In
the same way, the procedures and instruments that are used for the collection
of information are presented.
In this sense, research is subscribed from the qualitative
paradigm of the social sciences. Martínez (2006f): in relation to what is
proposed, he argues that qualitative research "basically seeks to identify
the profound nature of realities, their dynamic structure, the one that gives
full reason for their behavior and manifestations" (p.66). It is important
to mention that the key informants are made up of eight (08) researchers
located in the different universities and research centers of the State of
Mérida, Venezuela, who have mostly experience in research over ten (10) years
in their corresponding academic areas.
Therefore, we see that every human being is
different, from a social, emotional, cultural and ideological point of view.
Therefore, the qualitative paradigm addresses the analysis from the personal
perspective of each of the key informants, with the aim of approaching the
interpretation of reality. The contribution of each individual is a determining
factor when presenting the significant findings of the research. From this
perspective, the proposed research arose, due to the detailed description of
the interactions, situations, events and particular characteristics of the
group of participants, acting from their own frame of reference, as well as the
attitudes that the researchers show to the moment of carrying out their
research and the personal criteria they use to obtain the most significant
findings.
5.1. Design of the investigation
The design
of the present investigation was the type of action research. Martínez (2006g):
argues about the reasons why this type of methodology represents a valuable
option when describing, because it allows those involved in the research
processes to act from their own context, adapting the factors to the benefit of
the acquisition and incorporation of new knowledge.
5.2. Techniques and Instruments of the Collection of
Information
However,
the techniques of information collection were achieved through the
semi-structured interview, which allowed to obtain in a direct way the
perception that the researchers had in relation to the moment of conducting
scientific investigations that contribute to the strengthening of the search of
the changing and infinite knowledge. Likewise, the technique of participative
observation was used, in which for Martínez (2004): it is "the primary
classical technique and most used by qualitative researchers to acquire
information. To do this, the researcher lives as much as he can with the people
or groups he wants to investigate" (p.89).
6. Presentation of the Findings
In this context, the triangulation of
information was achieved through the invitation and prior acceptance that the
researcher made to the key informants; First, a meeting was held with each one
of them, with the purpose of planning the schedule of visits to the
headquarters and the work methodology to be executed. It is important to
highlight that the eight (08) research informants are located in the Municipalities:
Libertador, Santo Maquinas, Alberto Adriani and Rivas Dávila of Mérida State,
which are part of universities and research centers of the Andean region
(University of the Andes ULA, National Experimental University of the Western
Plains Ezequiel Zamora UNELLEZ, Polytechnic Territorial University of Mérida
UPTM), with the aim of developing in the selected researchers, cognitive
abilities that allow him to establish a critical position when developing
research in their professional areas through the application of qualitative
strategies.
In this sense, one of the categories of
analysis that emerged was the pensive ability of our own professional work, in
which professional training, lifestyle, experience and the ethical as well as
moral factor represent a significant variable at the moment of carrying out
processes research within any paradigm: quantitative or qualitative.
Therefore, the application of methods as techniques to the
analysis of theories to understand and read reality, is that there is no single
way to create knowledge: it stands out beyond science or scientific knowledge,
as the only body of knowledge. discernment, systematically organized, exact and
verifiable, expressed numerically, which tends to the search for objectivity
called: presumptions, conjectures, set of laws that are subject to be verified
or refuted to understand and explain reality, a fact or a phenomenon of man,
that in some way is what is established as a principle to positivism. The
subjective and objective perspective of researchers represents a major factor
in their research processes.
Therefore, it is reflected that there are
other aspects that fill the life of man, such as cognitive, emotional and social
factors: what man needs and needs during his life, in this way can not be
assumed as the only object of knowledge what can be measured count and verify,
the world of scientific objectivity is a closed and inhospitable world, reality
can not only experience the reason and the observable, they also understand
qualitative aspects such as feelings, emotions, motivations, this is , what can
not be counted or measured, the natural essence of the existence of man, is
therefore, that the postpositivist scientific paradigm proposes a theory of
knowledge based on the human sciences.
Based on the foregoing, the key informants determined that
according to the subject to be investigated, the method to be applied is
established, but highlighting that throughout their trajectory the two
investigative currents have originated revealing contributions to their
investigations. One should not create an independence between the two
paradigms, on the contrary, a process of joint integration to approach the
search for changing and infinite knowledge, despite following the domain of
positivism. It is emphasized that the main asset of modern man in the 21st
century is knowledge.
The emergence of the category of social, moral problems, and
especially human behavior, for key informants from their research experience,
should be analyzed from a postpositivist scientific perspective, based on an
entirely new system of ideas, based on different and contrasting assumptions of
the phenomena and events that surround man, which allow to discover as well as
to explain the behavior of things in human terms (subjective), susceptible to
be used for the benefit of humanity. For this reason, the qualitative
foundation reappears dominant, successful, which take a prominent place in social
research.
Consequently, postpositivism as a new research paradigm, is
characterized by being inductive, dynamic reality, holistic perspective,
humanist, realistic, adaptable to the true needs of humanity and flexible in
the way of conducting their studies; therefore, they are the new investigative
fashion, which will contribute to the development of research in today's world.
Your contributions will be meaningful for the next generations.
7. Reflections of the Researcher
From the beginning of the creation of man,
from the perspective of theology (the principle of creation) or science (the
principle of evolution), they are constantly searching for knowledge and
knowing the why of things, motivated to this, is where science possibly takes
advantage in providing security and confidence in the phenomena that occur in
reality and in the environment of society. It is on this foundation that the
doctrine of positivism that Comte emerges, summarizes through its law of the
three states, marking the history of human knowledge.
It is concrete, that for Comte through the
law of the three states, this is understood as a philosophy of history, as well
as a true science of society, found with original and new characters such as
social being, in short, the most true and interesting aspect of positivism, the
one that makes it really what it wanted to be for society.
However, positivism is a line of thought and a philosophical
doctrine where it is accepted as valid, the knowledge of scientific knowledge
obtained through experimentation, with the use of the scientific method, the
facts are studied and from these, they are deduced the laws that make them
valid, is a normative doctrine that is directly linked to the use of terms such
as; know, science, knowledge, information. It is considered that the positivist
philosophy, what it does is base its knowledge on the positive, on the real,
leaving aside the abstract and metaphysical to describe and understand the
behavior of man through society.
In the course of time it is considered that positivism more than
any other, since its inception has started from the fact of having the
condition of acquiring knowledge based on any principle of cause and effect,
systematically organized, accurate, methodical, demonstrable, fallible reality,
based on a set of verifiable knowledge about the facts that surround us,
implies a relationship between observation, description, experimentation,
demonstration and acceptance of reality, through a process of scientific
investigation to arrive at the truth, which It evolves and changes as new
research takes place; in short, positivism proposes the fact that science is
the only concrete foundation of human life, without taking into account its
qualities.
The new paradigm (postpositivist), born and developed because of
the limitations of the analytical procedures of traditional science, where the
new methodology focuses on the study of human phenomena and experiences, of
importance to the socially constructed nature in reality, the direct
relationship between the researcher and the object of study, because it is not
seeking the limitation of knowledge by the simple fact of collecting data.
Consequently, the new humanist paradigm is real, considers the
human being as an individual totally different from each other, without
measurements, so that their aptitudes lead to solutions within any social
sphere. This paradigm develops within an emotional field, evolving the human
being with freedom without cutting off its scientific, artistic creativity
within the environment that surrounds it.
It is important to highlight the differences that exist in the
new research paradigms, where the human being is not treated in standard
measurements, on the contrary, he is the creator of his own knowledge that in
the short, medium and long term, emit results that day they allow him to live
in a different society and with different needs according to the reality of his
environment, based on the social, economic and cultural policies in which he
develops.
8. References
Busot, A. (1988). Investigación
Educacional. Maracaibo, Venezuela: Ediluz.
Cerda, H. (1991). Los elementos
de la investigación. Bogotá: El Buho.
Comte, A. (1980). Discurso Sobre el Espíritu Positivo. Madrid: Alianza Editorial,
S.A.
Kolakowski, L. (1988). La Filosofía Positivista. Madrid:
Ediciones Cátedra, S.A.
Martínez, M. (1998). Comportamiento Humano. Nuevos Métodos de Investigación. (2ª. ed.).
México: Editorial Trillas.
Martínez, M. (2006a,b,c,d,e,f,g). Comportamiento Humano. Nuevos métodos
de investigación. México: Editorial Trillas.
Rodríguez, M. (2015). La gerencia interdisciplinaria lo natural y lo humano. (1ª. ed.).
Venezuela: Ipapedi.
Erivan José Rondón Valero
e-mail: erivan.rondon@gmail.com
Born in Venezuela Economist
(Universidad de los Andes). Bachelor
of Education Basic Basic Education. (Universidad Católica Cecilio
Acosta). Postgraduate in Taxes. Mention Internal Revenue (Universidad de los
Andes). Basic Teaching
Component in Higher Education (Universidad de los Andes). Doctorate in Advanced
Management (Universidad Fermín Toro, Mérida Extension), Guest Professor
UFT-Mérida University in the area: Financial and Strategic Planning, Guest
Professor UNEFA-Mérida in the area: Formulation and Evaluation of Productive
Projects, Professional I, Formulation Department and Evaluation of PyMIS
Projects. National Institute of Development of the Small and Medium Industry
INAPYMI-Mérida 2011-2017. Speaker and Researcher in different areas.
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- Original Version in Spanish -
DOI: https://doi.org/10.29394/Scientific.issn.2542-2987.2018.3.8.4.79-99