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Animal-Assisted Therapies:

An Animal Protection Perspective

 

Authors: Camilo Chacón Herrera

Tribunal Supremo de Justicia, TSJ

camilochacon2008@gmail.com

Aragua, Venezuela

 

Marian Serradas Fonseca

Universidad Nacional Abierta, UNA

mserradas@hotmail.com

Yaracuy, Venezuela

 

Abstract

When talking about therapies with animals, alongside the scientific verification of the therapies, all the literature turns to the benefits of the human animal that participates in them. This viewpoint also covers the possible risks of animal contact for the human and the costs of such therapies. However, little literature analyzes these therapies with a protectionist view of the animal, although it is clear that the animal is often affected, since it is usually separated from its habitat, subjected to cruel trainings, to unnatural conditions and abuse. The fundamental objective is to make the animal visible as a living being that feels, suffers and deserves a series of rights that must be respected within the therapies in which it participates. On this occasion, although the research partly recognizes some benefits of animal therapies, it delves into the characteristics and conditions that these therapies must have in order to be friendly to the animals that participate in them. This constitutes a reflective and sensitive reading for therapists, animalists, patients and relatives alike. The review includes a legal approach to the situation of animal abuse and its repercussions in therapies with dogs, dolphins and horses.

 

Keywords:  therapy, animal rights; animal resources; domestic animal; aquatic animal.

 

 

 

Terapias Asistidas con Animales:

Una Perspectiva de Protección Animal

 

Resumen

Cuando se habla de terapias con animales, toda la literatura se vuelca en los beneficios del animal humano que participa de ellas, así como su comprobación científica, la óptica abarca también los posibles riesgos del humano con el contacto animal, inclusive los costos de dichas terapias, sin embargo, poca literatura analiza estas terapias con una óptica proteccionista del animal, siendo que es claro que en su mayoría, el afectado resulta siendo éste, pues suele ser apartado de su hábitat, sometido a entrenamientos crueles, a condiciones innaturales y de maltrato. El objetivo fundamental es visibilizar al animal como un ser vivo que siente, padece y que es merecedor de una serie de derechos que deben respetarse dentro de las terapias en que participa. Es por ello, que en esta ocasión, si bien la investigación parte de reconocer algunos beneficios de las terapias con animales, profundiza en aquellas características y condiciones que han de tener dichas terapias para que sean amigables con los animales que participan en ellas, constituyendo una lectura reflexiva y sensibilizadora, tanto para terapeutas, animalistas, pacientes y familiares. La revisión incluye un abordaje legal de la situación del maltrato animal y sus repercusiones en terapias con canes, delfines y equinos.

 

Palabras clave: terapia, derechos de los animales; recursos animales; animal doméstico; animal acuático.

 

 

 

“When you exhort the power of an animal, you are asking to be wrapped in complete harmony with the strength of the essence of that creature. Acquiring understanding of these brothers and sisters is a healing process, and should be approached with humility and intuition”

Jamie Sams and David Carson (1992)

 

1. General considerations

Currently, there is a notable interest in the incorporation of animals in different disciplines related to therapeutic work in the field of human health, which is why this subject has become the focus of numerous scientific investigations.

 

Authors such as Chandler (2005), quoted by Maestre (2015a, p.4), states that "Assisted Therapies with Animals are developing remarkably as a therapeutic activity, offering a positive interaction between humans and animals, facilitating their recovery and improvement of the attitude and personal activity".

 

According to Mendoza (2017a, p.4), "the human-animal bond can bring many measurable benefits, helping to control levels of depression, reducing stress, alleviating suffering and anxiety, among others".

 

In the same way, authors such as Tsai, Friedmann and Thomas (2010); Johnson, Meadows, Haubner and Sevedge (2008), cited by Mendoza (2017b, p.4), highlight the benefits of the animal company "as a resource for dealing with chronic diseases and their treatment".

 

At present little is discussed the utilities that the incorporation of animals supposes in the protocols of attention of people with disabilities, as well as in programs directed to sectors that require a special help, as it can be the penitentiary population, old people, children in urban zones depressed or with learning difficulties.

 

2. Conceptual approach

Taking as a reference the definition provided by Fredrickson (1992): the different interventions that are carried out with animals will be briefly described in this section, among which we can mention: assisted therapy with animals, assisted activities with animals and assisted education with animals.

 

At present, there are several definitions used to conceptualize Assisted Therapies with Animals. In this sense, reference will be made to the one described by Tucker (2004), cited by Robles, (2015, p.17), who defines this type of intervention as "a therapeutic treatment modality in which an animal, which meets certain criteria, is an integral part of the treatment process".

 

In relation to the activities assisted with animals, these are aimed at encouraging motivation, education and recreation, in order to increase the quality of life of the recipients. According to Maestre (2015b, p.8), "they are developed in environments with more playful approaches and the encounter with the animal is more spontaneous".

 

And in the Animal-assisted Education, an "intervention directed by an education professional is pursued, in which a trained animal participates for the achievement of pedagogical objectives or for the stimulation of different areas of development". (Master, 2015c).

 

3. Types of Animals used in Animal Therapy

In this regard, Fine (2003a): maintains that dogs, cats, horses and dolphins are most commonly used animals, establishing the suitability of the animal according to the physical and psychological conditions of the users, as well as of the type of center in which the intervention will be carried out. The dog, is the most used mainly by the variety of breeds, temperament and ease of training. Birds, mammals, aquariums with fish are also used in the waiting rooms of some dental offices to produce a relaxing effect on patients.

 

3.1. Next, the most commonly used therapies will be briefly described:

3.1.1. Assisted Therapy with Dogs: is a technique based on close contact with trained dogs, which intervene in a therapeutic program with a defined goal of intentional improvement, where the participation of patients in different sensory and perceptive activities is pursued.

 

3.1.2. Dolphin Assisted Therapy: this is a therapy in which dolphins participate, so with the help of a therapist a procedure is carried out directed to the patient, inside and outside the water, with the purpose of improving some physical and mental conditions. It can be applied to people of different ages, the recommended time is for a period of fifteen days with sessions between 35 to 45 minutes, where people interact through swimming, play and caresses.

 

3.1.3. Assisted Therapy with Horses: has been defined as a specialized form of physical therapy that uses equines to treat people with movement disorders, associated with various neurological and neuromuscular conditions. This therapy in turn is classified into two different modalities: Hippotherapy and Therapeutic Riding.

 

It is important to highlight that there is no specific animal for each treatment, and that the therapist uses the motivation of the animal to work certain objectives, but it is true that there are some animals with which it is easier to work some things or other.

 

4. Application Contexts

Depending on the needs and characteristics of the users, there are several centers where to develop assisted therapy with animals. In this sense, various classifications about these contexts can be found in the literature reviewed. In this paper, proposals will be made by Fine (2003b) and Gunter (2002), cited by Maestre, (2015d, p.13), which include them as follows: Centers for people with developmental disorders, Educational Centers , Animal Programs for Residential Services and Programs Based on Institutions, these will be described below.

 

As for the centers for people with developmental disorders, "physical contact activities are included, teaching the responsibility of self-care and animal care, stimulation tasks and leisure situations". (Master, 2015e, p.13).

 

In Educational Centers, there are many activities that can be carried out with animals, since "cognitive skills can be taught, help children improve their motor skills, use them to improve reading and academic performance, promote socialization, enhancing prosocial behaviors and conflict resolution". (Master, 2015f, p.14).

 

With respect to Animal Programs for Services, in these interventions "the animal that is used par excellence is a guide dog that meets specific criteria for treatment and has been previously trained for its purpose". (Master, 2015g, p.14).

 

On the other hand, in Institutional-Based Residential Programs, these interventions are implemented in centers where care is offered for long periods, such as residences for the elderly, hospitals and prisons.

 

5. Benefits of Animal Intervention

The benefits obtained in assisted interventions with animals are divided mainly into four major areas: physical, psychological, educational and social.

 

In this sense, Wilson and Turner (1998), cited by Maestre, (2015h, p.10), state that "the presence of a companion animal helps prevent the appearance of different types of disease, facilitates coping and in turn, favors the rehabilitation of it".

 

In this same line, Maestre, (2015i, p.11), states that this modality of therapeutic treatment:

It is designed to promote improvements in physical functioning such as motor skills, balance and balance, relaxation, among others, in the cognitive part helps to stimulate attention, perception, memory, language, praxis and improves attention. On the educational side it contributes to the retention of long or short term memory, knowledge of concepts, vocabulary and communication. In addition, this therapeutic modality serves as motivation for the patient to perform the activity previously planned by the psychologist or therapist, allows interaction between people, increases confidence and self-esteem and decreases feelings of loneliness.

 

6. From the guide animal or therapy

In relation to the conception of animals, there are different positions, namely: mechanistic; (animals are automaton beings, without souls, or mind, do not reason and therefore have no ability to suffer or feel), utilitarian; (the suffering, is that which gives a living being the right to be considered morally and consequentially not to suffer), consequentialism; (all action generates consequences and this allows to distinguish good and evil), speciesism; (which distinguishes the human being from other species), contractarian; (not cause unnecessary suffering to animals is a duty), egalitarian or animalistic; (proposes equality between animals, humans or not). It is necessary to reflect after discerning about the benefits of these therapies with animals, with respect to the position of these and their participation in the aforementioned processes.

 

7. The animal is not a simple resource within the therapy

The first contribution that is considered necessary to make, is related to the conception of the animal within the planning of the therapy, that is, the animal can really be considered a material or another resource, within such programming, as a pencil, a pillow or a mat. Reviewing some plans of assisted therapies for children with autism and cerebral palsy, it can be seen how the dog that participates in the therapy is classified as a resource, after which it is listed: dog food, brushes, mats. It is estimated that such a label is not only absurd in the face of the development of therapy, but also biases the planning, invalidating it, and will detail why:

Suppose that assisted therapies are programmed with a Golden Retriever dog or Golden Labrador, the planning must include the appearance of some factors that may present the dog, which may be previous and others may occur unpredictably during therapy. It could be mentioned as a prior factor stress, tiredness, sleep, or heat, which should be detected by the therapist and should not be underestimated, since the physical condition of the animal should be optimal, not only for the therapy be effective, but because it is a living being that requires attention, maximum when you are getting an economic benefit.

 

The planning should foresee some factors that could appear at the moment of the therapy, related to the involuntary movements of the patient, the number of patients, the temperature of the place, the physical requirement that is imposed on the animal, when it has to walk or run as part of the therapy. Therefore, although the therapist must treat the patient as the agent receiving the benefit of the therapy, he should also be alert for any signs that the animal may manifest, remembering that even though he has received training and has gone through a rigorous process of selection, it is inevitable that in some situations react instinctively.

 

The animal can not be over-demanded in terms of the number of sessions in which it will participate, nor can it be strenuous sessions, the Task Force for IAHAIO (2014), recommends that an animal-assisted therapy can last for 30 to 45 minutes, depending on the number of people who participate in cases of group therapy, always suggesting that in case the therapist observes signs of fatigue or boredom in the animal he should stop the session or perform a break. Likewise, they recommend that they participate in a maximum of 3 sessions a week.

 

The above described shows the various factors that can affect the planning, development, continuity or suspension of an animal therapy, which if not taken into account by the therapist would constitute a hazing that could generate disastrous consequences. The professionals who are really experts in animal therapies frequently attend to the animal, periodically check their health and are attentive to any particular sign or symptom that the animal presents, without saturating the animal with strenuous and excessive sessions, they are also in the duty to inform the patients and their families the conditions of the therapy and the reasons why it could be suspended, postponed or extended.

 

In this way, it is necessary to reconsider the animal that participates in the therapy, so that it is not labeled as a resource, in tune with its entity as a living being, in respect for its rights, taking into account the provisions of the Universal Declaration of Animal Rights (1977a), in its Article 7 that provides: "All working animals have the right to a reasonable limitation of time and intensity of work (...) and rest".

 

Beyond the above, if you really reflect on the therapy with animals, regardless of whether the target is marked by the therapist, the healing and repairing function of the human being is fundamentally focused on the animal, who really produces a transformation in the patient, hence the great importance that this animal has in this process.

 

8. Respect the biological processes of the animal

The animal has biological and physiological needs, which must be respected, therefore, it can not be subjected to strenuous schedules or sessions that prevent its natural development, in order to cover the therapeutic requirements of humans.

 

In this sense, the case of dogs that participate in therapies, have the right to carry out their needs naturally, they must have water always available during the course of the same, must also be fed a diet according to their breed, size and Corpulence, in such a way that it can recover the energy consumed, maintaining a suitable body weight, a sufficient time of rest must be respected, so that the sleep is repairing, avoiding the use of drugs or drugs in search of better results or stimulating interaction.

 

It should be noted that the Universal Declaration of the Rights of Animals (1977b), in its article 2, literal a, establishes that: "a). Every animal has the right to be respected ... ", likewise the same article in its literal c, states: "... c). All animals have the right to care, to the care and protection of man". And article 7 states: "All working animals have the right (...) to a reparative diet ..."

 

It is necessary to refer specifically to delphinotherapy, as one of the therapies with animals most attacked by activists and animalists, precisely because they do not respect the natural biological processes of cetaceans, starting from removing it from its natural habitat to put it in captivity, as well as the experiences that have been had in diverse parts of the world, with deaths of dolphins subjected to excesses and stress, as well as by the critical conditions of the captivity and excessive transfers.

 

In an investigation carried out by Castello, Alaniz and Vega (2007a), which deepens in relation to delphinotherapy, it was analyzed that:

Dolphins are the most intelligent mammals of ocean life and all their behavior is determined by millions of years of evolution in their natural environment. All this behavior is canceled and suppressed from the moment of the capture of an individual from the herd, which also breaks the organization of the group, resulting in a quantitative damage of the cetaceans, both in general (group), as in the particular (individual) (p.33).

 

This is how it is extremely important for cetaceans to keep organized in packs. In the same investigation Castello, Alaniz and Vega (2007b), concluded that:

The real data of the captivity, such as the form of capture, the unhealthy and artificial conditions of the concrete tanks and the aggressiveness of the water treatment measures that affect the eye and skin damage of the animals, as well as the conditions of the called Operant Conditioning (training), which is nothing more than learning based on hunger, are hidden from viewers (p.33).

 

In that report, figures of high mortality of cetaceans are also published, also refers to a set of deaths that are not recorded, and that generally occur at the time of capturing, moments in which injuries and accidents are generated, by this is confirmed by Castello, Alaniz and Vega (2007c): that this makes it possible to "suspect enormous structural and social damage to the herds; thus, as the suffering of individuals, what defines captivity as an industry that is clearly cruel for the individual and highly impacting for the ecosystem". (p.33).

 

Hence, in view of the aforementioned research, the situation of dolphins in captivity even for therapeutic purposes contravenes the provisions of Article 4 of the Universal Declaration of Animal Rights (1977c), which states: "a). Every animal belonging to a wild species has the right to live in freedom in its own natural terrestrial, air or aquatic environment and to reproduce. b). Any deprivation of liberty, even that which has educational purposes, is contrary to this right".

 

The maximum criticism that is made to the delphinotherapy is the lack of scientific support of the benefits and improvements, which makes fruitless and sterile the damage that captivity is caused to the trapped dolphin and the herd or group of which it is a part. Of course, the promoters of this therapy, owners of aquariums and dolphinariums, even some protectionist veterinarians agree in enunciating a set of benefits in humans, especially related to some pathologies or conditions.

 

In this regard, an anonymous research called "Pirque Delphinoterapia Park" (1998), cited by Castello, Alaniz and Vega (2007d), in the methodological aspect of said project it is mentioned that:

… After 8 sessions with children, young people and adults, the following percentage advances have been achieved in the following pathologies mentioned: Psychomotor retardation (RPM), 70%; infantile paralysis (PC), 70%; Autism 65%; Seizures 85%; Hemiplegia 75%; Down syndrome 85%. In other 12 neurological diseases, advances ranging from 50% to 90% are mentioned. It is necessary to mention that evaluative criteria and / or tests, or diagnostic methodology was used to quantify the aforementioned advances, especially in those irreversible pathologies, for example. Down Syndrome, Microcephaly and Cortical Injury (p.31).

 

More recently, the story of the dolphins trainer José Luis Barbero shook the networks and local newspapers, after he committed suicide after the publication of a video where part of the training was seen, in which some scenes of abuse were met, the audience was divided between the protectionists and animalists who repudiated the practices of the trainer, while the other group lamented the death of the human and blamed the animal pack for having caused that fatal outcome, with a video allegedly altered and edited, highlighting the noble work social activity that took place in that aquarium in Mallorca, Spain.

 

Certainly this work does not intend to clarify the details of that fateful incident that occurred in 2015, but it does allow us to reflect on the therapeutic practices with dolphins, and the following questions arise: What is the process of training the dolphins? The reinforcement and Does dolphin conditioning entail corporal punishment? Are the captive conditions of dolphins in parks, aquariums and zoos suitable? Are there statistics and reports of dolphin deaths in captivity and their causes? If there are statistics, which is the incidence of dolphin deaths due to negligence, incompetence, disease, stress and other psychological implications? Is the cost-benefit justifiable, in relation to dolphins in captivity, versus the benefits of human therapies?.

 

The documentation on the subject makes it possible to warn of the serious ecological damage that is caused by the captivity of dolphins, whose species is increasingly threatened, which constitutes a problem of affecting biodiversity. On the other hand, the harmful effects on dolphins even born in captivity are lethal, in fact, animalists warn that genetic memory in wild animals is not lost in one, nor 50 generations, it takes centuries. Hence, even the apparent smile of some species of dolphins can not hide the depression and sadness that these animals can experience in captivity.

 

In this respect, Low (2012): in the Cambridge Declaration on Conscience he stated that: "human beings are not the only ones that possess the necessary neurological substrates to generate awareness. Non-human animals, including all mammals and birds, and many other creatures, including octopuses, also possess these neurological substrates" (p.3).

 

Before the publication of the aforementioned Declaration of Conscience has begun to discuss that cetaceans are worthy of human rights, since they have conscience, what was believed to be an exclusive attribute of humans, hence their hunting or captivity.

 

9. Give affection to the animal

It is important that the animal that participates in assisted therapies receives affection both from the therapist and to the extent of the possibilities of the patient and their relatives. This affection that is expressed with caresses, mimes, spoken and bodily language, facilitates contact with the patient and makes the therapy climate conducive to healing.

 

Normally this affinity and complicity between the animal and the therapist arise spontaneously, given the treatment and continuous interaction. Above all, thanks to the animal that possesses innate healing and therapeutic qualities, which produces in humans the need to show love.

 

As a sample of the above, it has been shown that children unable to show empathy even towards their parents, for various reasons, manage to show their affection towards the therapy animals, lying down on them, hugging them and even caressing them. It is one of the most present benefits in these therapies, and it causes an impression and joy in the parents and relatives, who for the first time see their son demonstrate affection and empathy, thus transmitting a sensation of healing and tranquility also to the relatives of the patient, who grow and heal as the therapies progress.

 

In aggressive patients, who self-flagellate, it has been observed how the animal achieves with its interaction to cease the patient's hostile behavior, leading to calm. The dogs do it by embracing the human and licking him, looking for him to feel his closeness and warmth, until the patient stops the self-aggression and culminates by embracing him. These results are little obtained by another human, for more love that feels towards the patient.

 

It should be noted that sometimes a dependency link between patients and animals is created, and if the therapies are suspended or the animal is changed, a regression or involution could be experienced. It also happens that when guide animals die or are removed from the patient, depressive symptoms can occur that will affect the patient's previous condition. For these reasons the therapist can suggest the constant change of the assistance animal, including the change of therapy. It can also happen that the patient does not tolerate or resist contact with the animal, due to psychological predispositions or due to the same condition that he suffers, for this reason it is necessary to alert and recognize that a service animal is not for everyone.

 

In short, it is important that the assistance animal or guide receives affection and compassion from all the subjects involved in the processes, having to remove the animal from contact with any person who at some point reacts aggressively or abuses it. In this sense, the Universal Declaration of Animal Rights (1977d), in its article 3 establishes that: "a). No animal will be subjected to ill-treatment or cruel acts". The affection is therefore a form of positive reinforcement for service animals, which should be rewarded, unless they receive compensation, the only way to repay them is with care and affection.

 

10. Supervise training

          Many have been complaints and videos that monopolize the attention on the Internet, which discusses and observe mistreatment of animals, it is also true that most are raised in Circus, Aquariums and Zoos, although some animal therapies do not escape these signs. Therefore, it is important to ensure the rights of the animal in the training phases, because it could be the most critical in terms of animal abuse.

 

The supervision of the trainings can be done through the joint work of trainers, so that one controls the other, or through cameras that record in an integral way those trainings, to which the owner of the center or institution that provides the service.

 

Knowing how to train the guide or assistance animals, will be very beneficial for those who hire the service, because if the animal does not suffer abuse, you can enjoy therapy for yourself or your family, without guilt, knowing that the animal to whom It will surely awaken feelings of affection and friendship, it has not been previously attacked; On the contrary, if the patient or a family member discovers or perceives that the training has been done through corporal or psychological punishment, it will be questioned whether the therapy should continue or if it is better not to contribute with these episodes.

 

In case of abuse of dogs, it is difficult to avoid recognizing them, as the animal will give unequivocal signals to its trainer, so that sooner or later the patient and their relatives will react or naturalize the animal violence. In cases of therapies with dolphins, it is difficult to see these maltreatment, especially by the smile typical of the dolphin, which is directly related to its morphology, and not with a feeling, coupled with the signs it shows, swimming away or sink to the bottom of the ponds, even their moans and cries, are often not interpreted by patients or their families. In some cases of equine therapies, the trainer uses a rod in his right hand, with which he claims to stimulate the horse, but in reality, it is an instrument of domination that inflicts pain on him, on the other hand they are used as blood traction, This has already been criticized by the animalists, not to mention horseshoes, grinds and whips, more common in other practices with horses, but which should be the object of reflection, in order not to naturalize animal abuse.

 

11. Do not naturalize animal abuse

          Those patients and relatives who go to therapies with animals should bear in mind that animal abuse is not tolerable. The training must be done with techniques that guarantee a free conditioning of corporal or psychological punishment, for this the coaches must act without constraints, with the characteristic patience reported in the literature, towards non-human animals.

 

Patients or family members who suspect or have shown animal abuse should report it, for this there are countless animal protection associations, NGOs, animal groups, in some countries animal management units and other agrarian judges with competence in biodiversity, fauna domestic and wild. Having contact with this animal protection system, is quite simple, since they tend to monopolize social networks, the important thing is to previously inform oneself about the fame of the organism before going to them. The logical thing is that these organizations before disseminating information about abuse by a center of animal therapies, conduct a preliminary investigation, talk with managers, verify information, inspect the center with the participation of veterinarians, all this is necessary to achieve a clear picture of possible animal abuse and to reach conclusions.

 

Reporting abuse with animals is part of a coercion strategy towards animal therapy centers, which will tend towards a culture of respect towards animals. Witnessing and tolerating animal abuse makes you an accomplice, which sooner or later can even be punished. Not in vain the Universal Declaration of the Rights of the Animal (1977e), in its article 14 establishes that: "a). The organisms of protection and safeguard of the animals must be represented at governmental level. b) The rights of the animal must be defended by law, like the rights of man".

 

12. Final Considerations

          Animal-assisted therapies, animal guides and education with animals are practices that are becoming more widespread, the animal provides and transmits an undeniable feeling of peace and balance with nature and contributes greatly to the health of the animals. human beings, improving their quality of life, the controversy is that these animals that participate in therapies can not be mistreated, because what has also advanced is the animal protection culture.

 

Thus, this document has listed some keys for the treatment of assistance animals is harmonious and friendly, including: understand that the animal is not a simple resource within the therapy, respect the biological processes of the animal, provide affect the animal, supervise training, not naturalize animal abuse, all resting on the Universal Declaration of Animal Rights (1977f), which is a global reference, but to which is added every day laws, regulations and internal ordinances , in different latitudes, that are oriented towards the protection of these animal brothers.

 

13. References

Castello, H., Alaniz, Y., & Vega, C. (2000a,b,c,d). Los delfinarios en México. Un Informe Crítico. México, D.F.: Conservación de Mamíferos Marinos de México. Recuperado de: http://www.academia.edu/4388371/Los_delfinarios_en_M%C3%A9xico._Un_informe_cr%C3%ADtico

 

Chandler, C. (2005). Animal Assisted Therapy in Counseling. New York, US: Routledge.

 

Declaración Universal de los Derechos del Animal (1977a,b,c,d,e,f). Adoptada por la Liga Internacional de los Derechos del Animal y por las Ligas Nacionales afiliadas tras la 3º Reunión sobre los derechos del Animal. Londres: Proclamada ante la ONU 1978, págs. 21-23.

 

Fine, A. (2003a,b). Manual de terapia asistida por animales: Fundamentos teóricos y modelos prácticos. Barcelona, España: Fondo Editorial de la Fundación Affinity.

 

Fredrickson, M. (1992). Handbookfor animal-assisted activities and animal-assisted therapy. Renton, WA: Delta Society.

 

Gunter, B. (2002). Animales domésticos: Psicología de sus dueños. Barcelona, España: Paidós.

 

Johnson, R., Meadows, R., Haubner, J., & Sevedge, K. (2008). Animal-assisted activity among patients with cancer: effects on mood, fatigue, self-perceived health, and sense of coherence. Oncol Nurs Forum, 35(2), pp. 225-232. Recuperado de: https://doi.org/10.1188/08.ONF.225-232

 

Low, P. (2012). The Cambridge Declaration on Consciousness. Francis Crick Memorial Conference on Consciousness in Human and non-Human Animals. Inglaterra: Churchill College, University of Cambridge.

 

Maestre, S. (2015a,b,c,e,d,f,g,h,i). Terapia asistida con animales: Propuesta de abordaje en una unidad de convivencia desde la educación social. Trabajo de Fin de Grado. Educación Social. España: Universidad de Valladolid. Recuperado de: https://uvadoc.uva.es/bitstream/10324/14444/1/TFG-G%201305.pdf

 

Mendoza, B. (2017a,b). Aplicación interactiva para la Terapia Asistida con Perros para los pacientes del Centro Canoterapia Ecuador. Tesis de Pregrado. Ecuador: Universidad Católica de Santiago de Guayaquil. Recuperado de: http://www.bibliotecasdelecuador.com/Record/ir-:3317-8276/Description

 

Robles, L. (2015). Disminución de los niveles de ansiedad en adultos mayores institucionalizados a través de actividades asistidas con animales. Trabajo de Grado de Maestría. México: Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León. Recuperado de: http://eprints.uanl.mx/9683/ 

 

Sams, J., & Carson, D. (1992). Medicine cards: The discovery of power through the ways of animals. pp. 224. ISBN: 093968053X, ISBN13: 9780939680535. U.S.: Bear & Company (first published September 1988).

 

Task Force for IAHAIO (2014). The IAHAIO definitions for animals assisted interventions and animal assisted activity and guidelines for wellness for animals involved. USA: IAHAIO White Paper, pp. 1-10. Recuperado de: http://iahaio.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/iahaio-white-paper-final-nov-24-2014.pdf

 

Tsai, C., Friedmann, E., & Thomas, S. (2010). The effect of animal-assisted therapy on stress responses in hospitalized children. Anthrozoos. 23(3), 245-258. Recuperado de: https://doi.org/10.2752/175303710X12750451258977

 

Tucker, M. (2004). The Pet Partners Team Training Course Manual. Bellevue, WA: Delta Society.

 

Wilson, C., & Turner, D. (1998). Companion Animals in Human Health. Thousand Oaks. California, Estados Unidos: Sage.

 

 

Camilo Chacón Herrera

e-mail: camilochacon2008@gmail.com

 

Born in Maracay, Venezuela. Lawyer by the Universidad de Carabobo, specialist in Civil Procedural Law, with studies in Human Rights, Constitutional and Epistemology, with 10 years of teaching experience in pre and postgraduate in various universities in his country. He currently serves as Superior Agrarian Judge of the states of Aragua and Carabobo in Venezuela.

 

 

Marian Serradas Fonseca

e-mail: mserradas@hotmail.com

 

Born in San Felipe, Venezuela. PhD from the Universidad de Salamanca in the Doctoral Program: "Advances and Perspectives in Research on People with Disabilities". Master in Science, Technology and Society: Culture and Communication in Science and Technology. Specialist in Telematics and Computer Science in Distance Education. Bachelor of Science in Education, Special Education Mention. She is currently Academic Advisor of the Learning Difficulties Area and Head of the Research and Postgraduate Unit of the Universidad Nacional Abierta, Yaracuy Local Center.

 

The content of this manuscript is disseminated under a Creative Commons License Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International

 

- Original Version in Spanish -

DOI: https://doi.org/10.29394/Scientific.issn.2542-2987.2018.3.9.14.275-296